Mistletoe is a semi-parasitic plant that grows on trees. It is also part of the tradition to give a kiss under the mistletoe on Christmas, but what if mistletoe could give the kiss of death to cancer?

Long ago, mistletoe was a pagan religious symbol thought to have supernatural qualities of therapeutic nature, conveying good fortune, defense from sorcery, and conveyed fertility. In the middle ages, mistletoe was hung on the ceiling to ward off unclean spirits. The Vikings thought mistletoe could bring the departed back to life, and the Romans used it to legalize marriages by a kiss beneath it.

Mistletoe is thought to have immune-stimulating, immune modulating, and cytostatic properties. It supposedly also helps with cough, asthma, seizures, and even hypertension.

In Australia, at the University of Adelaide, they are research how mistletoe extracts could aid in chemotherapy for colon cancer, which is the second largest cause of death in the Western world. Mistletoe extracts are already employed by colon cancer victims in Europe, but have not been tested in the U.S. In the studies, one mistletoe extract, from a species grown on ash trees, Fraxini, was found very effective against colon cancer. When compared to chemotherapy, it was easier on healthy intestinal cells, which were tested alongside, and more potent. In certain instances, Fraxini, also increased the potency of chemotherapy against cancer cells. Therefore, this species has amplified toxicity against cancer, and diminishes side effects. However, more research is needed, but is a potential viable alternative therapy for colon cancer.

I think it would be awesome if we could use mistletoe as a possible cure for cancer.  I do wish clinical trials would start in the U.S. Maybe then more kisses would begin with mistletoes instead of Kay.

http://liveandfeel.com/articles/benefits-of-mistletoe-plant-1737
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121130094725.htm

 

Medical myths, eating turkey makes people drowsy

I have always heard that eating a ton of turkey would make me sleepy, but is it true? (I don’t like turkey, therefore it does not matter, but thanksgiving=turkey, so…)

Tryptophan is present in turkey, because it is an amino acid existing in a lot foods. Scientific evidence has revealed that the amino acid is involved in sleep and mood regulation, and can cause drowsiness. L-tryptophan is even advertised as a sleep aid.

However, turkey does not contain a large amount of the amino acid. Turkey, chicken, and ground beef contain almost equal quantities of the amino acid, approximately 350 milligrams per 115 grams. Pork and cheese are comprised of a greater quantity of the amino acid per gram than turkey. Plus with all of the other food eaten with turkey at Thanksgiving, would limit its absorption because it is suggested for maximum absorption, an empty stomach is necessary. The drowsiness after eating turkey can be explained by the large meals eaten during Thanksgiving with lots of carbohydrates, because blood flow and oxygenation to the brain are lowered.

Voila! The turkey mystery has been debunked with a little biology! Super cool!

Here are some Thanksgiving fun facts!

·         The first thanksgiving was thought of as the one that occurred in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1621, but there are twelve claims that the first Thanksgiving happened in places in Texas, Virginia, and Massachusetts.

·         The turkeys in images on thanksgiving are not the same turkeys people actually eat. Domestic turkeys are too large to fly and weigh twice as much as non-domestic turkeys.

·         People eat 535 million pound of turkey on Thanksgiving.

·         There is an Unthanksgiving day. It occurs on the island of Alcatraz to honor of the survival of Native Americans after the influx of the Europeans.

·         The first Thanksgiving football game was in 1876 in which Princeton played Yale.

·         Only male turkeys gobble.

·         The Pilgrims’ Thanksgiving actually lasted three days, and included fifty pilgrims and ninety Wampanoag Indians. There menu was different from the modern Thanksgiving feast, and included berries, shellfish, boiled pumpkin, and deer.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2151163/

http://facts.randomhistory.com/thanksgiving-facts.html

Have you ever wondered why the leaves change color in the fall? Well, it is such a simple question, and many people believe the leaves are just dying, but what is the science behind it?

Leaves contain three main pigments or molecules: chlorophyll, carotene, xanthophylls, and anthocyanins. Chlorophyll acquires the sun’s energy to generate food for the plant, and is the molecule for the leaves green color. Carotenes cause yellow colors and are found in carrot roots, while xanthophylls cause corn to be yellow, and anthocyanins cause beets to be red and eggplants to have their purple color.

In the latter part of the summer season, shorter days and chillier nights halt the manufacturing of fresh chlorophyll, and promote its breakdown. The other pigments in the leaves are not broken down, and are no longer disguised by the chlorophyll molecules, therefore becoming apparent. Different species, then based on different conditions, produce different hues of color. If anything stops the production of auxin, like the changing autumn weather, the stem and leaf stalk becomes structurally weaker, and allows for the leaf to break off in the wind.

During the growing season, auxin, a plant hormone, is also produced. This molecule controls a group of cells at the bottom of each leaf stem, also known as the abscission layer. If anything stops the production of auxin, like the changing autumn weather, the stem and leaf stalk becomes structurally weaker, and allows for the leaf to break off in the wind.

These reasons would have been so cool to learn as a child, not just in botany. I have also noticed that leaves have become less bright in the last ten years, specifically in my hometown, and I wonder the reason for that.  Pollution? Acid Rain? Research!

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071012104737.htm

http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/POW/autumn_leaf_colors.htm

So I was thinking (thanks to Mr. Truver) of what I could possible write about pertaining to fall or thanksgiving….well, the answer is pumpkins. Pumpkins are good for pie (if you like that disgusting crap), lattes, libido, jack o’ lanterns, and pumpkin spice everything, but did you know pumpkins show anticancer activity?

The recent study, “Characterization of anticancer, DNase and antifungal activity of pumpkin 2S albumin,” discussed how pumpkin is one of the most extensively used vegetables, and its seeds are a great basis of minerals and protein. The seeds have a therapeutic prospect about them, specifically the 2S albumin in the seeds. The 2S albumin is a class of low-molecular weight seed storage proteins made up of cysteines forming four disulfide bridges and structure comprised of five α-helices. The proteins have translational inhibitory properties, antimicrobial and serine proteinase inhibitory properties, as well as RNA hydrolytic activity, which is not conveyed in any other member of the family. The DNase and antifungal activities of pumpkin 2S albumin displayed strong anticancer activity toward breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer, as well as, hepatocellular carcinoma. The cytotoxic effect of pumpkin 2S albumin is induced through apoptosis. The only other protein that has the same potential is the lunasin peptide taken from the soybean 2S albumin.

I think that with more studies that protein 2S albumin would have great potential for cancer research and cancer cures. It is also helpful because pumpkin is eaten in many countries and could be readily available. Perhaps pumpkins are the key to a possible cure for cancer!

 

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006291X14008298

I want to eat your brains...

I want to eat your brains…

In the last of my Halloween blogs, I am choosing to blog about zombies. So what does zombies have to do with molecular biology? Well according to a recent article published in August, “Gene expression during zombie ant biting behavior reflects the complexity underlying fungal parasitic behavioral manipulation,” it has everything to do with it! But I will get to that in a minute.

In general, zombies are thought to occur through the reanimation of human corpses. The creature is deemed fictional. The word zombie comes from Haitian folklore, where it refers to the deceased being revitalized through necromancy of a bokor, or witch. The zombie is controlled by the bokor, forced to be his or her slave.

Zombies can be traced back in literature to discussion of resurrection of the undead in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein literature by H.P. Lovecraft. However, currently zombies are all the rage and can be seen in art, comics, videogames, tv shows, and movies, with one of the most popular being the Walking Dead. In 2011, the CDC published a graphic novel titled “Preparedness 101: Zombie Apocalypse,” and in the same year the Weather Channel published an article “How to Weather the Zombie Apocalypse.” All of the cultural media surrounding zombies is fine and dandy, but can zombies really exist?

 

So far, no actual zombies, the kind that were human have existed. But from what I understand the disease does exist in plants and insects, specifically in the ant. The study focuses on carpenter ants infected by the fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis and their biting behavior curtailed from infection. After infection, and upon observation of biting, samples were taken and a mixed RNA-Sequence analysis was performed on them. The O. unilateralis genome was also sequenced. From the experimentation, the results showed that the majority of fungal genes that up-regulated during manipulated biting behavior are exclusive to the explicit fungus’ genome. The study also showed that the fungus controlled immune and neural stress reactions during biting, and reduced the ant’s chemosensory communication ability, which instigated apoptosis, or programmed cell death. Furthermore, the genes that remained up-regulated encoded for proteins that produced effects on behavior as well as proteins that were responsible for the biosynthesis of alkaloids.

So zombies do exist! I would be interested to know if other fungus in the same wheelhouse would produce similar effects, and if any of the manipulating fungus would have the same effect on invertebrates or mammals. The article was super interesting, and I would enjoy seeing where science goes with this topic over the next ten years.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zombie

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4545319/ for more on the study regarding zombie ants

For more information on zombie plants, please read this peer reviewed article, http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=d1ded09f-a690-49c9-a22c-1e1981ea20cc%40sessionmgr4002&vid=7&hid=4203.

 

It's just a bunch of hocus pocus...

It’s Just a Bunch of Hocus Pocus…

In the middle ages, bread was prepared with rye. I bet you are asking what the hell does bread have to do with witches and how does this relate to molecular biology? Well, the fungus ergot, Claviceps purpurea, can be found on damp rye, and when a person eats very little, it can be a powerful hallucinogen. The hallucinogen that is responsible is ergotamine and lysergic acid amide, which is structurally similar to LSD and contains alkaloids. An alkaloid is a cluster of naturally occurring molecular compounds that are comprised of basic nitrogen atoms. (That is what this has to do with molecular biology, in case you were wondering…) However, in great quantities, it can be fatal. People who ate the bread often danced eccentrically in the streets, jibber-jabbering gobbledygook, and foamed at the mouth, until they fell down in the streets from fatigue. However, others who ingested it, suffered from St. Anthony’s fire, which caused mass outbreaks of seizures, diarrhea, vomiting, itching, and dry gangrene in the extremities.

For the drug user to intake their drugs, they practiced a delivery method that was more complex than ingestion. When ingested orally, the consumers would have disagreeable side effects like nausea, itching, headaches, etc. Then it was discovered that absorbing the drugs through the skin would give a better outcome, but the best were the sweat glands and the mucus membranes of the genital region. In order to reach the mucus membranes of the genitalia, early drug users would use brooms. Brooms were also linked to pagan ceremonies, because it was perceived to stabilize both male and female vivacities (the penis fashioned handle and the bristles to describe the female), and was often exercised in marriage services. Other plants were also experimented on for their hallucinogenic properties like nightshade, mandrake, hemlock, and henbane.

Ergotism could have also been a cause for the Salem witch trials. Rye was used heavily by the people of Salem, Massachusetts. Symptoms of ergotism were scratchy skin, burning sensations, phantasms, etc., which were identical to the ailments that the betwiched people of salem complained of. Ergot flourishes in humid environments, which is exactly what the weather condition that transpired in Salem preceding to the Salem witch trials was.

Witches have also been associated with toads, which had been used to exercise religious rites for thousands of years. Some toads are known to secrete hallucinogens from glands on the rear of their heads. Some means of extracting the hallucinogen is licking the toad, milking the toad, and grinding up the desiccated skin of the deceased toad. However, the in some circumstances the desired material contains a mixture of toxic chemicals. Although, the molecule responsible for the hallucinations is bufotenin, a chemical similar to the drug, psilocin, which is found in “shrooms.”

http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/10/why-do-witches-ride-brooms-nsfw/281037/

http://www.foodreference.com/html/a-ergotism-salem.html

http://www.damninteresting.com/bad-rye-and-the-salem-witches/

Also some of the information was taken from Dr. Chi Yu’s notes on Hallucinogens!  

Getting Wolfy...

Werewolves are shape shifters with rare strength, swiftness, and senses. We have all seen werewolves portrayed in movies and TV shows like Twilight, Underworld, and even the Vampire Diaries, but do werewolves really exist?

In early Greece it was alleged that a person could be changed into a werewolf through consuming the meat of a wolf that had been combined with the meat of a human, which was thought to be a disease that was permanent. In the next centuries, people thought you could become a werewolf in a variety of ways including:  slumbering under a full moon on a Friday, via a curse, being produced under a full moon, by ingesting various herbs, or even consuming water that a wolf had been in contact with. It was also accepted that wolves dressed in a protective wolf skin, which was detached during the day and concealed. If the magical skin was stolen, he or she could be slain.

There are two medical conditions that could explain lycanthropy. One is clinical lycanthropy, where a person believes that he or she is a werewolf. An example can be seen in 1589, where Peter Stubbe alleged to own a wolf skin belt that allowed his transformation into a werewolf. He alleged that he killed at least 12 people over a time span of 25 years, some of which were consumed, and he was burned at the stake during Halloween in 1859. It is thought that he was mentally ill.
The other condition is hypertrichosis, which is a disease where there is excessive growth in body hair in excess of the ordinary quantity when compared to persons of equal age, race, or sex. People have been recorded to bare this disease since the middle Ages, and were often exhibits in fairs and circuses due to their phenotype. Hypertrichosis can be congenital or acquired. Congenital is rare, and is possibly an isolated skin ailment or factor of an alternate disease. Acquired hypertrichosis is more common and may be due to drug side effects, metabolic ailments, malnourishment, anorexia, and even ovarian neoplasms. Other signs of hypertrichosis include: facial disfigurement, irregularities of the eyes, heart, bones and kidneys.
It is thought that hypertrichosis might be due to a excess stimulus of hair follicles with ordinary levels of androgen-like hormones. Another hypothesis is that the physical features are caused by a relapse of a suppressed familial gene. In idiopathic hypertrichosis, some of the patterns of inheritances have been thought to be due an autosomal dominant trait with two plus family members affected or an X-linked type of inheritance. The connection of chromosome 8 has been reported in individuals with congenital hypertrichosis, and in those particular cases males were more ailed than females. However, the actual epidemiology is uncertain.
Therefore, it is my belief that since this disease has been around for long time that this possibly could be the origin of werewolf lore. I also am curious as to whether an individual has been reported with both porphyria and hypertrichosis (a hybrid), and if the relation of the genes involved if they were in conjunction with one another.
http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=3&sid=e5ffc643-d94d-42ab-8926-1f6857d64ee3%40sessionmgr4001&hid=4203
http://www.livescience.com/24412-werewolves.html

I WANT TO SUCK YOUR BLOOD!

In honor of Halloween, I thought I would do a couple of posts in regards to the subject. I thought how in the heck could Molecular Biology relate to Halloween? There is no way right? WRONG!

Vampires can be traced back to Romanian prince Vlad Tepes (1431-1476), who fought for freedom from the Ottomans. Most of his methods of execution were sadistic like impaling his enemies on stakes or burning them to death. From this ideology, it is where Bram Stoker got inspiration for his novel Dracula. Historically, vampires are immortal creatures that feed off the blood of the living to survive. The first recorded accounts of vampires were during the Middle Ages in Europe. If something terrible happened to a family or town, whether it be infectious disease or crop failure, they would blame it on vampires. Also during the winter, a body takes longer to decompose, which caused bodies to bloat and blood to run out of the mouth, thus vampirism! However, historically they are thought to be pale, deathly afraid of sunlight, can transform into bats, and can be killed with stakes and holy water. Today they are just a bunch of pansies that sparkle in the sunlight. But what if this historical ideology bares some truth in reality?
 

The answer is it does. There are two diseases that mimic vampirism. They are Porphyria cutanea tarda(PCT) and Renfield’s syndrome.

According to the article, “Cutaneous porphyrias part I: epidemiology, pathogenesis, presentation, diagnosis, and histopathology ,” porphyria is a group of disorders that are characterized by defects in heme production, which results in a buildup of toxic heme precursors. The symptoms of the diseases include: photosensitivity, severe burning, abscesses, and scarring. They are categorized into categories based on whether the toxic precursors build up in the liver or bone marrow. The kind that builds up in the liver are subdivided into two categories: acute and chronic, and the specific kind that we are talking about is chronic.

Porphyria cutanea tarda can either be familial, developed, and in exceptional cases it occurs in patients with a porphyrinogen III decarboxylase (UROD) gene), which affects multiple family members indicating a genetic element. A flaw in UROD, which drives the fifth step in heme synthesis causes PCT. Diminished UROD activity escalates the production of symptom-causing carboxylic porphyrins. Porphyrins in the skin absorb ultraviolet A, producing peroxides that gives rise to oxidative damage and inflammation. PCT is a multifactorial disease, alcohol, Hepatitis C, and HIV are commonly associated.

So intolerance to sunlight, check! What about Renfield’s syndrome?

According to “Vampirism-Clinical Vampirism: Reinfield’s Syndrome,” Renfield’s syndrome or clinical vampirism is commonly found in men. The patients with this ailment are often diagnosed with schizophrenia or one of the paraphilias based on their behavioral exhibitions, such as illusions of being a vampire, fetishes, and habitual blood drinking. Renfield’s syndrome develops in stages from licking one’s own blood (autovampirism) to consuming animal blood, to zoophagia(ingesting live animals), to actual vampirism. Blood drinkers accept the belief that blood provides them with the life force that they need for survival, and often indulge in the ideology that it will help them achieve immortality.  

Blood drinking schizophrenics, check!

So vampires do exist! Just not as one entity. Joking…So, what happens when you combine Porphyria with Renfield’s disease? I am curious if there has ever been a documented case. I wonder if there are any genetic factors linking the two. It could explain any sightings of vampires in history, and explain some of the ideology surrounding the myth when it comes to dislike of sunlight and blood drinking.

Tune in next week for werewolf talk!

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=8e162219-3436-4d30-b1a3-62ed87be9282%40sessionmgr115&vid=5&hid=113

http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=48ec0d81-d9cc-41d1-8c17-6f9018987534%40sessionmgr110&hid=113

http://www.livescience.com/5924-real-science-history-vampires.html

Autism and Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

Autism and autism spectrum disorders are disorders that deal with brain development, which are characterized by difficulty with social interaction, verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as, repetitive behavior. And fetal alcohol spectrum disorders are conditions that cause physical and behavioral problems in children, such as trouble with acquiring and retaining knowledge, following directions, emotional stability, etc. But what do these two types of disorders have to do with each other? 

The recent study, Epigenetic Mechnisms: A Possible Link Between Autism Spectrum Disorders and Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders, shows how there is a possible link between polygenetic, epigenetic, and environemental factors and autism. According to the artcicle, there recently has been progress in understanding the genetics of autism. In fact, other recent studies have shown that there may be environmental factors that interact with genetic factors that increase the risk of autism. It has been also noted that epigenetic mechanisms might affect gene transcription alterations on passageways that are involved with neurological and cognitive development, social skills, behavior, etc. Furthermore, hazardous prenatal events may alter neurodevelopment on a long term scale. It is discussed that other studies have also shown that epigentic dysregulation is a key component in fetal alcohol syndrome disorder. However, according to this particular study, more research needs to be done, because more epigenetic investigation can shed light on neurodevelopmental disorders and their shared molecular mechanisms, as well as their prevention. 

I found this article intriguing. It did a good job of explaining how FASD and ASD are connected. It made my curious as to what other disorders are linked to fetal alcohol syndrome. It also made me think of how daft women are who drink while they are pregnant or that do drugs, and how obvious it is that they should have been sterilized. However, since this does occur, I do hope that more research is done, so preventative measures can be taken, or even possible a cure for autism or FASD, since currently there is no cure. 


http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.shsu.edu/science/article/pii/S1043661815002157
https://www.autismspeaks.org/what-autism
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/fetalalcoholspectrumdisorders.html

Stop in the Name of Love...

L is for the way you look at me...Yes you probably would be looking at me strangely if we were in the same room; however, you are not...so let's talk about love and happiness. What causes people to be happy? This answer differs for men, women, children, etc. However, the answer truly lies with molecules! What kind of molecules? Well, there are lots, but the one I want to focus on is oxytocin. Oxytocin is a nonapeptide that acts as a hormone and neurotransmitter. Oxytocin is usually released during sex, childbirth, and during lactation. It Is thought to also have an anti-anxiety effect, be helpful with autism, and be present during the first few months of a blooming relationship. 

In the article, "Dissecting the Role of Oxytocin in the Formation and Loss of Social Relationships" discusses the role of oxytocin in the formation and preservation of social relationships. In the article, it was suggested that oxytocin helps create relationships whether infant-parent or romantic, and the loss of those relationships can causes mental disorders, suggesting that oxytocin helps with mental health stability. 

In the article, was also suggested that oxytocin drives the mom to care for the infant, based on a study with rats. Oxytocin concentrations during the first trimester also help predict postpartum attachment to their children. There is evidence to suggest that there is a link between childhood attachment bonds and genetic variation in oxytocin pathways. For example, mothers with a silent G to A allele in the oxytocin gene, showed lower levels of sensitive parenting.  However, oxytocin levels were measured in adult women with a history of childhood trauma and abuse, as well as, socially deprived children indicating  that childhood distress has a long-lasting impact on oxytocin signaling. Furthermore, it was implicated that the molecule is responsible for the social connections of dogs regarding their owners.  Also males who were dosed with synthetic oxytocin were found to have an increase in attachment security, making fathers more motivated toward their young. In addition, oxytocin was shown to heighten orgasms in males. The article goes on and on about the effects on oxytocin and synthetic oxytocin, only to conclude that it plays a vital part in bonding, and more research needs to be done, but also how in smaller trials there was limited success, especially in older people. 

The article was clearly interesting; but somewhat scattered and needing focus, especially in linking the conclusions to other parts of the paper. However, I want to know what kind of abuse the women they viewed endured or the children in order to alter oxytocin levels? How the oxytocin pathways works in those cases? What kind of measurements were done? I also think that the article needed to include how oxytocin affected women's orgasms, not just men's orgasms. (Because if mama ain't happy, ain't nobody happy, right?) 

 

http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.shsu.edu/science/article/pii/S0006322315004369

http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/275795.php?page=2

Chocolate: Insanium in the Cranium

Chocolate's origins lie with the ancient Mayans and Aztecs. The Aztecs showed it to the Spanish, who brought it back to Europe, but it was so costly, only the wealthy could afford it. Until Victorian times, it was drank, and then solid masses were eaten. Throughout history, whether in liquid form or solid, it has been sought after, making angry women happy for years, and pretty much always will be; however, now it is sought after to improve cognition and behavior. That is right, chocolate is beneficial for your nogin!!! That's  insanium in the cranium! 

In a recent article, "Chocolate and the brain: Neurobiological impact of cocoa flavanols on cognition and behavior" , chocolate has been shown to contain flavonols, especially dark chocolate. Well, what the hell are flavonols you ask? Flavonols are molecules known as antioxidants, which round up cell-damaging free radicals and metallic ions.(That is how this relates to molecular biology btw-flavonol molecules, in case you were wondering.) Flavonols are also in fruits, vegetables, and tea you know the stuff we wish was chocolate. 

The article discusses how flavonols accumulate in the brain regions involving learning and memory, in particular the hippocampus. How does they work to improve brain function specifically you ask? Well, they are believed to act using the neurodefensive and neuroregulating proteins that improve the birth of neurons, and through blood flow enhancement  in the brain and audiovisual systems. Long term flavanol consumption has shown defensive effects on neurocognition and behavior, specifically the age and disease linked to cognitive deterioration. Animal models were used to test typical aging, dementia, and stroke.  However, it appears that very few human studies have been done, but those that have substantiate this idea, but only on a group between 69-89 years of age. I personally would love to see more studies done based on sex and different age brackets to see if this chocolatey cure's benefits lies with early onset or not, or even if men versus women have better reactions and why. 

Not only does chocolate contain caffeine, theobromine, and makes you release serotonin ( a chemical which can cause mood elevation) when ingested, but I love the idea that chocolate could possibly help improve cognition and behavior. The article was a great read! Chocolate is easily accessible melt in your mouth goodness, but who knew what was really good for you was the flavonols? This molecule is the key to perhaps aiding with dementia, alzheimer's, and other diseases that have been plaguing families for generations. I would love to see more human trials to see if chocolate can really aid in reducing memory issues, wouldn't you? 

 http://www.sciencedirect.com.ezproxy.shsu.edu/science/article/pii/S0149763413001681

https://www.cadbury.com.au/About-Chocolate/What-is-Chocolate.aspx

https://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200307/flavonoids-antioxidants-help-the-mind

So I read this post in the Scientific American entitled " How Structure Arose in the Primordial Soup" by Emily Singer and Quanta Magazine, which discusses how DNA arose through the beginnings of life, or lack of knowledge about the event itself. The article discusses the views of scientist Greg Fournier is attempting to use genomic data from present species to infer the genetic code of those ancient genes present in the primordial soup. He believes the last amino acid to be added was tryptophan. Other scientists believe that the genetic code began from a limited alphabet of amino acids, with that developing into the complexity of the diverse life forms of today.

Essentially the idea of primordial soup establishes that radiation coverts gases such as methane and ammonia into the first organic compounds, monomers, and eventually into polymers, etc. This theory has been overturned, and now the idea is that organisms today use the same proton gradient to drive ATP as the less evolved did millions of years ago. So how did it happen?

The Miller-Urey experiment explored the possibility of the primordial soup theory through experimentation with abiogenesis, which produced some of the amino acids necessary for life using
"lightning" . However, could this experiment be expanded or manipulated so that the amino acids could turn into protein so that primordial soup conditions are met? Or is the new theory correct?

In experimentation to test the theory, scientists used a simulation of a meteorite impact to test for ATP related substances, because of the necessity of the substance in lifeforms, and it is thought there was an absence millions of years ago. The experiment showed that an ATP like substance was produced, which could have possibly been used to make more extensive lifeforms.

However, all of the research done is only yields a possibly, and I hope to see research done which has the missing link from amino acid to DNA, because it seems to me that these experiments are inconclusive and do not actually show how structure arose from primordial soup or from chemiosmosis.Why is that? Once again I pose, is it possible? Below are the resources that I used.

http://www.crystalinks.com/primordial.soup.html
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-structure-arose-in-the-primordial-soup/